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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China
The artificial intelligence market in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and innovation as the country’s primary productive force.
The preliminary stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced considerable obstacles due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China lagged many Western countries in terms of AI advancement. A majority of the research was led by researchers who had actually received college abroad. [1]
Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually gradually established a national program for expert system advancement and emerged as among the leading nations in expert system research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it aimed to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]
The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI development has substantially impacted Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most affected by additional AI deployment.
The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in numerous elements as there are few present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first national law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade constraints intended to restrict China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]
Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship routine on the development of generative synthetic intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]
History
The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]
Late 1970s to early 2010s
Artificial intelligence research and advancement did not start up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was challenging so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional offering government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have become part of China’s national innovation strategy. [9]
Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually even more expanded its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research tasks has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year plan. [11]
In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the greatest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was held in China. This event accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]
Late 2010s to early 2020s
The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a strategic technology that has actually become a “focus of international competitors”. [14]:2 The file prompted significant financial investment in a variety of strategic areas associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the celebration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between economic and military ends is an essential component to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The same year experienced the development of several application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]
In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]
In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council stated the requirement for enormous talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and personal financial investments. [14] A few of the specified inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI strategy consist of the capacity of expert system for commercial transformation, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]
In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the emergence of big language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]
The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283
In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]
In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]
In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on fundamental generative AI services safety requirements, including specs for information collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96
Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI security risks, including abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93
In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative artificial intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]
In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95
In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]
According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and fifth largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]
As of 2024, many Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]
Chronology of major AI-related policies
Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs
National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech
Government goals
According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be crucial to the future of international military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make essential contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s industrial updating and financial improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the development of expert system theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]
According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to combine state preparation and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, producing uneven advantages as they expand offshore.” [36]
The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research priority and ranks AI initially among “frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167
Research and development
Chinese public AI funding primarily concentrated on advanced and applied research. [38] The government financing likewise supported several AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study revealed that, while China is enormously investing in all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]
According to national guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and local industrial development and ecosystem. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282
In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]
Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private collaborations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]
Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had actually finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101
According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI companies, the overall method to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]
Population
China’s large population produces a massive amount of available data for business and researchers, which offers an essential benefit in the race of big information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, producing big amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18
Facial acknowledgment
Facial recognition is among the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of data from its residents helps additional train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise provides tremendous financial potential attracting both international and domestic firms to join the AI market. The drastic development of the info and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets over the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]
Censorship and material controls
In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft measures specifying that tech companies will be obliged to ensure AI-generated material upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects intellectual home rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal responsibility for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a big language model to the public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model refuses to answer particular concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]
In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training data sets frequently utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local business with training information that CCP leaders consider allowable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]
Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political issues. [54] [55] [56]
The Chinese synthetic intelligence model DeepSeek has actually been reported to refuse to answer concerns associating with things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]
Impact
Economic effect
Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, standard industries in China have fought with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional costs are anticipated to minimize while an increase in efficiency produces earnings development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development since of increasing needs for laborers with innovative skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is focused in seaside regions rather than inland. [61]
An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98
Military impact
China seeks to develop a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on using unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is looking into different kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense development and worries of a widening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, generating a common operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]
Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, decision assistance, software, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]
China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, few boundaries exist in between Chinese business companies, university lab, the military, and the central federal government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct methods of directing AI development top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly developed for civilian purposes. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial business and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12
China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, possibly granting it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative clean energy.” [71] [72]
In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its design usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]
Academia
Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, specifically since China faces challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over ten years, while roughly the same percentage of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China especially want to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, recently developed the first children’s educational program in military AI in the world. [76]
In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]
Ethical issues
For the past years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific focus on user defense, information privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI principles requiring vital requirements in long-lasting research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]
Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous nationwide governments have established legislation attending to data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to resolve brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative framework all sort of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech companies in China are needed to categorize their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and handle information transfers to other celebrations. [81]
Judicial system
In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements connected to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI evaluates the evidence presented and applies pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124
Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]
Leading companies
Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]
China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to motivate private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281
In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]
New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been promoted as a leading startup. [89]
Assessment
Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to international AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]
A short article released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities showed remarkably eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and advised that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required change.” [35] A post in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unrivaled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be smart for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]
The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]
In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI develops challenges for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing results on international relations. [28]:49
Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of employees and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital build-up and political power in fewer financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the main responsible actor in the location of generative AI (developing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI threats intensifying military competitors between countries and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover results. [28]:91
Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential risk from expert system have actually happened. [92]
Public polling
The Chinese public is usually positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed across 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI exceed the threats, the highest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university students found that 80% agreed or strongly concurred that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% believed it must be managed by the federal government. [93]
Human rights
The commonly utilized AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is “the very first recognized example of a government deliberately using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of discontent are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, especially by local community police departments. [97] [98]
Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system business
Regulation of expert system
References
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Further reading
Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.