Expert System Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence market in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s primary efficient force.

The initial phases of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and came across substantial difficulties due to lack of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged most Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research study was led by researchers who had gotten greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has actually steadily established a nationwide program for expert system advancement and emerged as among the leading countries in expert system research and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI teams” consisting of fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s fast AI advancement has significantly impacted Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most affected by additional AI implementation.

The private sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first national law addressing AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions meant to limit China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative artificial intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of synthetic intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and development did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was challenging so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s national technology strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research tasks has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, synthetic intelligence was also pointed out in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable turning point in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a strategic technology that has actually ended up being a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The file urged substantial investment in a variety of strategic locations connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an essential component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The same year witnessed the introduction of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research lab in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful advancements, along with public and personal financial investments. [14] Some of the specified inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique consist of the capacity of expert system for industrial transformation, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system introduced China’s first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly provided the policies concerning deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, including specs for data collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy dialogue with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed issue over AI safety threats, including abuse of data or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors created with generative synthetic intelligence to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be important to the future of worldwide military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the development of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a “mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to blend state preparation and control while some functional flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, developing uneven advantages as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a leading research study priority and ranks AI first among “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to concentrate on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector typically supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on advanced and applied research study. [38] The government financing likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research revealed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous cars are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on establishing China’s state-of-the-art industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending upon cities and regional industrial development and community. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private collaborations, and global cooperations and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the leading three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had actually finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI business, the overall approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a massive amount of accessible data for business and scientists, which offers an important benefit in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, generating huge amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most commonly utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of information from its citizens helps further train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise provides significant financial potential bring in both international and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The extreme advancement of the details and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures stating that tech business will be obliged to ensure AI-generated content maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates intellectual property rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal responsibility for training data and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “incite subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the general public, companies must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to address certain concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training information sets typically used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides regional companies with training information that CCP leaders consider allowable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has cautioned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to concerns connecting to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting financial development. In the past, traditional markets in China have fought with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the release of AI, functional costs are expected to reduce while a boost in efficiency creates earnings growth. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to conquer adoption barriers consisting of costs and absence of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI advancement due to the fact that of increasing needs for laborers with . [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial advancement is concentrated in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to build a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on using unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is researching various kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released later on showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a broadening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China aims to utilize AI for making use of big chests of intelligence, producing a common operating picture, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to incorporate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few boundaries exist between Chinese business companies, university lab, the military, and the central federal government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct means of directing AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian functions. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese federal government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business companies and research organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of information labeling to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily relevant AI applications, possibly giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and copyright. [69] Chinese venture capital financial investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial nations,” from investing in U.S. innovation firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly considering that China deals with challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the very same percentage of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study items. [61]:8 Although China surpassed the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China especially desire to resolve military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the first children’s educational program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user security, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for important needs in long-term research and planning of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and lots of nationwide governments have developed legislation attending to information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to new challenges raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure categorizing all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech companies in China are required to categorize their information into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes connected to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology companies might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually sought to motivate private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been promoted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to worldwide AI leadership and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards protecting a global technological supremacy – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities demonstrated extremely eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to similarly focus on cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “funding, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive needed change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of worry about China’s development, it would be smart for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI develops obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the risks that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing effects on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause higher oppression of workers and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital accumulation and political power in fewer financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main responsible actor in the location of generative AI (producing brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI risks intensifying military competitors between nations and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one nation however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential risk from expert system have happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is generally optimistic regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed throughout 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI exceed the threats, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university students found that 80% agreed or highly concurred that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% believed it needs to be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly used AI facial recognition has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang area to spot Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a federal government intentionally utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, specifically by local community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

References

^ a b Chang, Huey-Meei; Hannas, William C. (2022-06-22), “Foreign assistance, alliances, and innovation transfer”, Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 36-54, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-4, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ a b c He, Yujia (2017 ). How China is preparing for an AI-powered Future (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b c d e Luong, Ngor; Fedasiuk, Ryan (2022-06-22), “State strategies, research, and funding”, Chinese Power and Expert System (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 3-18, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-2, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ a b c d e f g Kania, Elsa B. (November 28, 2017). Battlefield Singularity: Expert System, Military Revolution, and China’s Future Military Power. Washington D.C: Center for a Brand-new American Security. OCLC 1029611044. Archived from the initial on January 14, 2024. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
^ Allen, Gregory (11 October 2022). “Choking off China’s Access to the Future of AI”. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
^ Allen, Gregory C.; Benson, Emily (2023-03-01). “Clues to the U.S.-Dutch-Japanese Semiconductor Export Controls Deal Are Hiding in Plain Sight”. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from the initial on 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
^ a b Zhang, Daqiu; Lin, Yujie (2024-07-02). “生成中国式AI ： 审查之外 ， 科技公司的烦恼清单” [Building a Chinese AI: Beyond censorship, tech business’ list of worries] Initium Media (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 2024-07-11. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
^ a b c d e Lin, Liza (July 15, 2024). “China Puts Power of State Behind AI-and Risks Strangling It”. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the initial on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
^ a b c d 蔡自兴 (13 August 2016). “中国人工智能40 年”. 科技导报 (in Chinese). 34 (15 ): 12-32. doi:10.3981/ j.issn.1000-7857.2016.15.001 (non-active 1 November 2024). ISSN 1000-7857. Archived from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2022-02-07. cite journal: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link).
^ “Introduction to the Chinese Association of Artificial Intelligence”. 中国人工智能学会.
^ Liu, Wei (2023 ), Liu, Wei (ed.), “From Adjustment to Innovation: How China’s Economic Structure Has Been Upgraded”, China’s 40 Years of Reform, Understanding China, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 11-33, doi:10.1007/ 978-981-19-8505-8_2, ISBN 978-981-19-8504-1.
^ a b “人民网 世界人工智能国际联合大会今秋将首次在中国举行– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “科学网-首届吴文俊人工智能科学技术奖颁奖”. news.sciencenet.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ a b c d e “State Council Notice on the Issuance of the Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (PDF). New America. Archived (PDF) from the initial on April 13, 2018. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
^ Laskai, Lorand (29 January 2018). “Civil-Military Fusion: The Missing Link Between China’s Technological and Military Rise”. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the initial on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
^ “中国科学报” 人工智能+” 应上升为国家战略– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “人民网 强强联合建医疗” 阿尔法狗” 人工智能将问诊肿瘤– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ a b Milmo, Dan; Hawkins, Amy (2024-05-18). “How China is utilizing AI news anchors to deliver its propaganda”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ Kuo, Lily (2018-11-09). “World’s first AI news anchor unveiled in China”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the initial on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ Steger, Isabella (2019-02-20). “Chinese state media’s most current innovation is an AI female news anchor”. Quartz. Archived from the original on 2024-05-19. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ a b Cyranoski, David (January 17, 2018). “China goes into the fight for AI talent”. Nature. 553 (7688 ): 260-261. Bibcode:2018 Natur.553..260 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-00604-6. PMID 29345655.
^ Liu, Zhiyi; Zheng, Yejie (2022-04-03). “Development paradigm of expert system in China from the point of view of digital economics”. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies. 20 (2 ): 207-217. doi:10.1080/ 14765284.2022.2081485. ISSN 1476-5284. S2CID 249301337.
^ “自动化所研发出跨模态通用人工智能平台” 紫东太初”– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “Beijing-funded AI language design tops Google and OpenAI in raw numbers”. South China Morning Post. 2021-06-02. Archived from the initial on 2023-11-19. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ a b c d e f g h Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024 ). High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ oso/9780197682258.001.0001. ISBN 9780197682258.
^ Zhang, Laney (April 26, 2023). “China: Provisions on Deep Synthesis Technology Participate In Effect”. Law Library of Congress. Archived from the initial on 2024-08-16. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
^ “Huawei unveils Arabic LLM, new information centre in Egypt as part of generative AI push”. South China Morning Post. 2024-05-21. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bachulska, Alicja; Leonard, Mark; Oertel, Janka (2 July 2024). The Idea of China: Chinese Thinkers on Power, Progress, and People (EPUB). Berlin, Germany: European Council on Foreign Relations. ISBN 978-1-916682-42-9. Archived from the initial on 17 July 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
^ Bandurski, David (2024-12-20). “AI for All”. China Media Project. Archived from the initial on 2024-12-20. Retrieved 2024-12-22.
^ Zhuang, Sylvie (21 May 2024). “China rolls out big language model AI based upon Xi Jinping Thought”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
^ “Baidu, SenseTime lead China’s market for business-focused LLMs, says IDC”. South China Morning Post. 2024-08-22. Archived from the initial on 2024-08-27. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ a b “China’s 4 brand-new ‘AI tigers’ emerge as financier favourites”. South China Morning Post. 2024-04-19. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ “China’s AI start-ups race for clients as titans like Alibaba cut prices”. Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ “Chinese AI companies fight to stand out from competitors in text-to-video market”. South China Morning Post. 2024-08-08. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ a b Allen, Gregory C. (2019 ). Understanding China’s AI Strategy: Clues to Chinese Strategic Thinking on Artificial Intelligence and National Security (Report). Center for a Brand-new American Security. JSTOR resrep20446. Archived from the original on 2019-02-07. Retrieved 2019-03-11.
^ Sutter, Karen M. ; Arnold, Zachary (2022-06-22), “China’s AI business: Hybrid players”, Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 19-35, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-3, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ Lan, Xiaohuan (2024 ). How China Works: An Introduction to China’s State-led Economic Development. Translated by Topp, Gary. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/ 978-981-97-0080-6. ISBN 978-981-97-0079-0.
^ a b Ashwin Acharya; Zachary Arnold (December 2019). “Chinese Public AI R&D Spending: Provisional Findings”. Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20190031. S2CID 242961679. Archived from the initial on 2024-04-10. Retrieved 2024-04-10.
^ Larson, Christina (8 February 2018). China’s huge financial investment in expert system has an insidious drawback (Report). Science. doi:10.1126/ science.aat2458.
^ a b 21世纪经济报道 (2021-07-10). “解码人工智能” 国家队””. finance.sina.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-04-09. Retrieved 2024-02-16. point out web: CS1 maint: numerical names: authors list (link).
^ Tilley, Aaron. “China’s Rise In The Global AI Race Emerges As It Takes Over The Final ImageNet Competition”. Forbes. Archived from the initial on 2019-05-28. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ “Beijing to Judge Every Resident Based Upon Behavior by End of 2020”. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2020-05-16.
^ a b Zhang, Daniel; Mishra, Saurabh; Brynjolfsson, Erik; Etchemendy, John; Ganguli, Deep; Grosz, Barbara; Lyons, Terah; Manyika, James; Niebles, Juan Carlos (2021-03-08), The AI Index 2021 Annual Report, arXiv:2103.06312.
^ Heikkilä, Melissa (June 9, 2021). “Meet Wu Dao 2.0, the Chinese AI model making the West sweat”. Politico. Archived from the initial on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
^ Ho, C. (October 15, 2024). “PRC Launches First Algorithm Registration Center, Strengthening AI and Data Regulation”. Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 2024-10-18.
^ Li, David Daokui (2024 ). China’s World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393292398.
^ Li, Daitian; Tong, Tony W.; Xiao, Yangao (2021-02-18). “Is China Emerging as the Global Leader in AI?”. Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Archived from the initial on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2024-02-16.
^ Knight, Will (January 24, 2023). “China Is the World’s Biggest Face Recognition Dealer”. Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
^ Bandurski, David (April 14, 2023). “Bringing AI to the Party”. China Media Project. Archived from the original on April 15, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2023.
^ Liu, Qianer (2023-07-11). “China to put down AI guidelines with focus on material control”. Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ “China is supporting the excellent firewall program for the AI age”. The Economist. December 26, 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the initial on 2023-12-26. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
^ a b McMorrow, Ryan; Hu, Tina (July 17, 2024). “China deploys censors to produce socialist AI”. Financial Times. Archived from the initial on July 17, 2024. Retrieved July 17, 2024.
^ Colville, Alex (2024-11-27). “The Party in the Machine”. China Media Project. Archived from the original on 2024-12-02. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
^ Lyngaas, Sean (2023-09-07). “Suspected Chinese operatives using AI generated images to spread disinformation among US voters, Microsoft says”. CNN. Archived from the original on 2024-04-02. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
^ Milmo, Dan (2024-04-05). “China will use AI to interrupt elections in the US, South Korea and India, Microsoft alerts”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
^ Farrell, James (April 5, 2024). “China Eying Election Disruption Campaigns-Including With AI, Microsoft Says”. Forbes. Archived from the initial on April 8, 2024. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
^ Field, Matthew; Titcomb, James (27 January 2025). “Chinese AI has actually sparked a $1 trillion panic – and it does not appreciate totally free speech”. The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
^ Steinschaden, Jakob (27 January 2025). “DeepSeek: This is what live censorship appears like in the Chinese AI chatbot”. Trending Topics. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
^ Lu, Donna (28 January 2025). “We checked out DeepSeek. It worked well, until we asked it about Tiananmen Square and Taiwan”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
^ “How China Is Using AI to Fuel the Next Industrial Revolution”. Time. Archived from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b c d “Expert system: Implications for China”. McKinsey & Company. Archived from the original on 2024-02-04. Retrieved 2024-02-16.
^ Bresnick, Sam (June 2024). “China’s Military AI Roadblocks”. Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20230042 (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from the initial on 2024-06-18. Retrieved 2024-06-18. cite web: CS1 maint: DOI non-active since November 2024 (link).
^ Takagi, Koichiro (November 16, 2022). “Xi Jinping’s Vision for Expert system in the PLA”. The Diplomat. Archived from the original on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ a b c d Expert system and National Security (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-08. Retrieved 2020-04-30. This post integrates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^ Magnuson, Stew (July 13, 2023). “China Pursues Its Own Version of JADC2”. National Defense. Archived from the initial on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ “China Military Power Report Examines Changes in Beijing’s Strategy”. U.S. Department of Defense. November 29, 2022. Archived from the initial on May 25, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ Fedasiuk, Ryan (August 2020). Chinese Perspectives on AI and Future Military Capabilities (Report). Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20200022.
^ Knight, Will (October 10, 2017). “China’s AI Awakening中国 人工智能 的崛起”. MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2020-05-13. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ Mozur, Paul; Markoff, John (2017-05-27). “Is China Outsmarting America in A.I.?”. The New York City Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-04-07. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ Brown, Michael; Singh, Pavneet (2018 ). China’s Technology Transfer Strategy: How Chinese Investments in Emerging Technology Enable A Strategic Competitor to Access the Crown Jewels of U.S. Innovation (PDF). Defense Innovation Unit Experimental. p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-12. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b Kan, Michael (September 15, 2022). “Biden Curbs China’s Investment in US Tech Firms With New Executive Order”. PC Magazine. Archived from the original on February 20, 2024. Retrieved February 19, 2024.
^ a b Sanger, David E. (2022-09-15). “Biden Issues New Order to Block Chinese Investment in Technology in the U.S.” The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
^ Cheung, Sunny (October 31, 2024). “PRC Adapts Meta’s Llama for Military and Security AI Applications”. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the initial on 2024-11-02. Retrieved 2024-11-03.
^ Pomfret, James; Pang, Jessie (November 1, 2024). “Chinese scientists establish AI design for military use on back of Meta’s Llama”. Reuters. Retrieved November 1, 2024.
^ “Which nations and universities are leading on AI research study?”. Times College. 2017-05-22. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ “China’s brightest kids hired to establish AI ‘killer bots'”. South China Morning Post. 2018-11-08. Archived from the original on 2020-01-09. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b “China has actually become a scientific superpower”. The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 2024-09-26. Retrieved 2024-09-27.
^ a b “Chinese AI has new ethical standards that suppress Big Tech’s algorithms”. South China Morning Post. 2021-10-03. Archived from the original on 2022-02-03. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ Wu, Wenjun; Huang, Tiejun; Gong, Ke (March 2020). “Ethical Principles and Governance Technology Development of AI in China”. Engineering. 6 (3 ): 302-309. Bibcode:2020 Engin … 6..302 W. doi:10.1016/ j.eng.2019.12.015.
^ “Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017)”. DigiChina. Archived from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b Horwitz, Josh (2021-08-27). “China’s coming information laws leave companies with more questions than answers”. Reuters. Archived from the initial on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b Šimalčík, Matej (2023 ). “Rule by Law”. In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. pp. 114-127. doi:10.4324/ 9781003350064-12. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
^ Zhabina, Alena (January 20, 2023). “How China’s AI is automating the legal system”. Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024. Retrieved May 25, 2024.
^ Chen, Stephen (2022-07-13). “China’s court AI reaches into every corner of justice system: report”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the initial on 2024-03-31. Retrieved 2024-05-25. [H] umans will slowly lose complimentary will with an increasing dependence on technology”, she said in a paper released in the domestic peer-reviewed journal Law and Social Development on Sunday. The smart court system, developed with the deep involvement of China’s tech giants, would also pass excessive power into the hands of a few technical experts who composed the code, established algorithms or supervised the database. “We must look out to the disintegration of judicial power by technology companies and capital,” she added.
^ Papagianneas, Straton; Junius, Nino (November 2023). “Fairness and justice through automation in China’s clever courts”. Computer Law & Security Review. 51: 100-101. doi:10.1016/ j.clsr.2023.105897. hdl:10067/ 2001290151162165141. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2024-05-26 – through Elsevier Science Direct.
^ Pham, Sherisse (2018 ). “Chinese AI start-up dwarfs worldwide competitors with $4.5 billion evaluation”. CNN. Archived from the initial on 9 April 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
^ “China ramps up tech education to end up being artificial intelligence leader”. NBC News. 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-01-10. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
^ Cao, Ann (2023-09-07). “Tencent introduces Hunyuan foundation AI design for business”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-03.
^ Olcott, Eleanor (3 May 2024). “4 start-ups lead China’s race to match OpenAI’s ChatGPT”. Financial Times. Archived from the original on 8 September 2024. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
^ a b c Zeng, Jinghan (2021-09-16). “Securitization of Expert System in China”. The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 14 (3 ): 417-445. doi:10.1093/ cjip/poab005. ISSN 1750-8916.
^ Knight, Will (October 10, 2017). “China’s AI Awakening”. MIT Technology Review. Archived from the initial on March 24, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
^ Guest, Peter (November 29, 2024). “Inside the AI back-channel in between China and the West”. The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-12-08.
^ Corvino, Nick; Li, Boshen (August 23, 2024). “Survey: How Do Elite Chinese Students Feel About the Risks of AI?”. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the initial on 2024-08-24. Retrieved 2024-08-23.
^ Beraja, Martin; Kao, Andrew; Yang, David Y; Yuchtman, Noam (2023-06-23). “AI-tocracy”. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 138 (3 ): 1349-1402. doi:10.1093/ qje/qjad012. ISSN 0033-5533.
^ Mozur, Paul (2019-04-14). “One Month, 500,000 Face Scans: How China Is Using A.I. to Profile a Minority”. The New York City Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2019-06-08. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
^ Sahin, Kaan (December 18, 2020). “The West, China, and AI surveillance”. Atlantic Council. Archived from the original on February 26, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
^ “Autocracy and AI Innovation”. Stanford University Center on China’s Economy and Institutions. Stanford University. July 1, 2022. Archived from the initial on February 26, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
^ “China’s AI-Tocracy Quells Protests and Boosts AI Innovation”. IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on 2024-02-26. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.